Altitudinal distribution of the functional feeding groups of aquatic macroinvertebrates using an ecological network in Andean streams / Distribución altitudinal de los grupos funcionales de alimentación de macroinvertebrados acuáticos utilizando una red ecológica en arroyos andinos

Abstract Introduction: Analysis of functional feeding groups (FFG) in aquatic macroinvertebrates is important in understanding the structure, function, and dynamics of ecological processes in ecosystems. Modularity refers to the degree of compartmentalization of food webs and varies between -1 and 1. A network with a modularity value close to 1 is resilient to disturbances and can be interpreted as an indicating factor for the stability of communities. Objective: In this study, we analyzed the trophic structure of benthic macroinvertebrates in La Nitrera stream, the San Juan River, and the Cauca River in the Colombian Andes. Methods: The study was supported by ecological networking techniques using Gephi software. We studied nine sites in dry, rainy, and transition seasons in 2017 and 2018, monitoring changes in the altitude gradient. At each of the sites, the organisms were captured and determined, and physicochemical and hydraulic information was obtained. Results: The variance component analysis allowed to explain the variability of the data by relating the following environmental variables: FFG, diversity, richness, modularity, season, and time. Simple multifactorial ANOVA indicated that significant changes in FFG were associated with altitude, and modularity to time. The allocation of the FFG was done by stomach analysis and secondary information. Conclusion: The transition season had the highest modularity, possibly due to the recolonization of some biotopes caused by the decrease in the velocity of water currents. La Nitrera and San Juan presented higher values than the Cauca, which may indicate that the altitudinal change and velocity of water currents affects the compartmentalization of the network.

Resumen Introducción: El análisis de grupos funcionales de alimentación (GFA) en macroinvertebrados acuáticos es importante para comprender la estructura, función y dinámica de los ecosistemas de procesos ecológicos. La modularidad se refiere al grado de compartimentación de las redes alimentarias y varía entre -1 y 1. Una red con un valor de modularidad cercano a 1 es resistente a las alteraciones y puede interpretarse como un factor indicativo para la estabilidad de las comunidades. Objetivo: En este estudio se analizó la estructura trófica de los macroinvertebrados bentónicos, un elemento importante en la calidad ambiental, en el arroyo La Nitrera, el río San Juan y el río Cauca. Métodos: El estudio contó con el apoyo de técnicas de redes ecológicas utilizando el software Gephi. En 2017 y 2018, estudiamos nueve sitios en estaciones secas, lluviosas y de transición, monitoreando cambios en el gradiente de altitud. En cada uno de los sitios se capturaron y determinaron los organismos y se recogió información fisicoquímica e hidráulica. Resultados: El análisis de componentes de varianza permitió explicar la variabilidad de los datos relacionando las siguientes variables ambientales: GFA, diversidad, riqueza, modularidad, estación y tiempo. La ANOVA simple multifactorial indicó que existen cambios significativos en los GFA en relación con la altitud, y la modularidad con el tiempo. La asignación de los GFA se realizó mediante análisis estomacal e información secundaria. Conclusión: La temporada de transición tuvo la mayor modularidad, posiblemente debido a la recolonización de algunos biotopos provocada por la disminución de la velocidad del cauce. La Nitrera y San Juan presentaron valores superiores a los del Cauca, lo que puede indicar que el cambio altitudinal y la velocidad de las corrientes de agua influyen en la compartimentación de la red.

Morfometría geométrica y sus nuevas aplicaciones en ecología y biología evolutiva: Parte 2 / Geometric morphometric and its new applications in ecology and evolutionary biology: Part 2

RESUMEN: La presente revisión entrega una visión actualizada del estudio de la morfometría geométrica y sus aplicaciones más actuales en ecología y biología evolutiva, metodología con una amplia variación en los últimos 5 años de su primera versión en International Journal of Morphology. La Morfometría geométrica es una herramienta que permite evaluar las variaciones morfológicas con factores subyacentes, siendo una herramienta más sensible que la morfometría tradicional, lo que permite detectar mínimos cambios de variación morfológica. Lo que la ha vuelto una herramienta notable para responder preguntas de biología comparada centradas en caracteres anatómicos. En sus comienzos fue una herramienta usada principalmente para responder preguntas taxonómicas, y para diferenciar a nivel de individuos, poblaciones o especies. No obstante, en los últimos años la cantidad de preguntas y problemáticas en las que se aplica, ha diversificado considerablemente, pasando a ser una herramienta muy precisa para responder preguntas de variación morfológica en contextos ecológicos y evolutivos. Ya ha pasado casi media década desde la última revisión del método, por lo que éste trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar los cambios metodológicos y los nuevos enfoques usados en Morfometría geométrica, y presentar una pequeña guía introductoria a éstos nuevos métodos, sus usos y aplicaciones.

SUMMARY: This study provides an updated vision of the study of Geometric Morphometrics and its most recent application in ecology and evolutionary biology, covering a wide variation in methodology occurring in the last 5 years since the first version published in the International Journal of Morphology. Geometric Morphometrics is a tool that allows evaluating morphological variations with underlying factors, with a higher sensitivity than traditional morphology, so that minimum changes of morphological variation can be detected. Therefore, it has turned into an outstanding tool to answer questions of comparative biology focused on anatomic characters. At the beginning, it was a tool mainly used to answer taxonomic questions and for differentiation at individual, population or species level. However, in the last years, the number of questions and problematic on which it is applied, has diversified considerably, turning it into a very accurate tool to answer questions of morphological variation in ecologic and evolutionary contexts. Almost half a decade has elapsed since the last revision of the method, so this work is intended to analyze the methodological changes and the new approaches used in Geometric Morphometrics, including a brief introductory guideline to these new methods, their uses and applications.

La arquitectura genética como herramienta de análisis del mapa genotipo-fenotipo / Genetic architecture as an analysis tool of the genotype-phenotype map

El estudio de la relación entre el genotipo y el fenotipo es de gran importancia para las investigaciones en genética y en las ciencias de la vida en general. A diferencia de la concepción tradicional de esta relación como un conjunto invariante de parámetros, el enfoque actual utiliza la arquitectura genética, una herramienta realista y dinámica que permite elucidar el mapa genotipo-fenotipo, ahora considerado una estructura en evolución. De las complejas relaciones entre los elementos del mapa genotipo-fenotipo surgen diversas propiedades emergentes que pueden explicar distintos fenómenos evolutivos. Además, algunas de estas propiedades promueven la acumulación de variabilidad genética en poblaciones naturales, la cual constituye el sustrato de procesos evolutivos como la selección natural. La caracterización y análisis de la arquitectura genética de caracteres adaptativos constituye una herramienta eficaz para comprender los procesos genéticos subyacentes al cambio evolutivo.

Studying the relationship between genotype and phenotype is of great importance for genetics and life science studies in general. In contrast with the traditional view of this relationship as an invariant set of parameters, the current approach incorporates the concept of genetic architecture, a realistic and dynamic tool that allows to elucidate the genotype-phenotype map, which is now regarded as an evolving structure. From the complex relationships between the elements in the genotype-phenotype map several emergent properties arise that can explain different evolutionary phenomena. Moreover, some of these properties promote the accumulation of genetic variability in natural populations, which constitutes the substrate to evolutionary processes such as natural selection. The characterization and analysis of the genetic architecture of adaptive traits constitutes a powerful tool to understand the genetics underpinnings of evolution.

Wandering Minds with Wandering Brain Networks / 神经科学通报·英文版

The default mode network (DMN) is associated with the occurrence of mind-wandering or task-unrelated thought. In contrast, the frontal-parietal network (FPN) and visual network (VS) are involved in tasks with external stimuli. However, it is not clear how these functional network interactions support these two different processes - mind-wandering and on-task - especially with regard to individual variation in the mind-wandering experience. In this study, we investigated the functional connectivity and modular structure among the DMN, FPN, and VS. Our results showed that, compared to the on-task period, mind-wandering was associated with increased DMN activity and increased DMN-VS connectivity. Moreover, mind-wandering was accompanied by a large number of transitional nodes, which expressed a diversity of brain regions. Intriguingly, the functional connectivity of the FPN and VS was strongly correlated with individual behavioral performance. Our findings highlight the individual variation of mind-wandering, which implies the importance of other complementary large-scale brain networks.

Design and application of field tent hospital system / 医疗卫生装备

Objective To develop a set of field tent hospital system to further enhance campaign-level medical support service. Methods The system had its service orientation, functional requirements, component unit and modular elements determined with system analysis. The technical architecture was realized with tent combined with boxes, and the system modules were designed with the method of integrated box and instruments.Results The system had its design executed from the aspects of layout,composition of grid tent,medical functional units,support unit and packaging unit,which was applied in a series of military medical support operations in foreign countries and China as well as in the construction of national medical emergency rescue forces. Conclusion The system gains advantages in modularity, integration, completing, informatization and standardization,and thus greatly enhances the military medical support ability and national emergency medical rescue ability in China.[Chinese Medical Equipment Journal,2018,39(5):1-6,16]

Discussion on Teaching Reform of the Computer Curriculum System in Higher Medical Vocational Colleges / 医学信息学杂志

By analyzing current situations of the computer curriculum in higher medical vocational colleges and combing the practice of Zhaoqing Medical College,the paper proposes setting up the computer curriculum system and reforming the teaching methods based on the health system of medical colleges,and provides suggestions such as stratified teaching,updating of teaching methods,construction of a web-based self-learning platform,offering of interactive lectures,organization of and participation in competitions,and optimization of the teaching staffs.

Study and Compatible Design of Two Types of Liquid Auto Sampler for Gas Chromatographer / 分析化学

We carried out parallel design and development of two differently structured auto sampler based on a multi-axis and multi-mode high-precision closed-loop servo control system. An integrated embedded control drive module was developed based on the idea of compatibility and inter-changeability, so that DC motor and encoder were standardized into uniform models. Meanwhile, electric and mechanical interfaces were uniformed to a same standard. This allows the direct exchange of above-mentioned components between the two models. A 1-μL manual sample injection syringe was installed on both standard 110-sample and platform 40-sample liquid auto sample injectors connected with gas chromatographer. Approximately 0. 5μL of cetane-isooctyl was sampled for 6 consecutive times at six different positions in the sample bottle. The repeatability RSDs of the injection peak areas of the two systems were 1. 1% and 1. 5%, respectively. A linear correlation coefficient (0. 9947) of peak area with injection volume was achieved based on the gradient sampling volume of 0. 1, 0. 3, 0. 5, 0. 7 and 0. 9 μL.

Construction and implementation on clinical medicine modular integration curriculum system / 中华医学教育探索杂志

Wuhan University built up a new modular integrated curriculum in clinical medicine oriented for post competence,by learning from the successful international experience and the course of vertical and horizontal integration.The curriculum focused on five modules (including humanities and vocational course,courses of integrated medicine,clinical practice and thinking,innovation awareness and ability,prevention and health promotion program) and the eight integrated curriculum (including human structure,organization and function,cell,molecule and gene,reaction,nerve injury science,pathogen biology,CPPT,clinical skills).During the curriculum implementation,Wuhan University vigorously promoted the group discussion teaching,cultivated high-quality core teaching team,and effectively carried out curriculum construction and teaching evaluation,which effectively improved the level and quality of medical personnel training.

Modelando la varianza de la forma: morfometría geométrica aplicaciones en biología evolutiva / Modelling shape variance: geometric morphometric applications in evolutionary biology

La comparación de caracteres anatómicos entre organismos ha sido un elemento central de la biología comparada. Históricamente, la clasificación taxonómica y la comprensión de la diversidad biológica se han basado en descripciones morfológicas. En base a una revolución matemática cuantitativa, el estudio de la morfología ha tenido un importante énfasis gracias al desarrollo del análisis de la forma mediante la combinación de métodos estadísticos multivariados y nuevas maneras de visualización. El objetivo de la presente revisión es dar una visión actualizada sobre los avances del estudio de la morfometría geométrica (MG) en biología evolutiva, así como introducir a temáticas en fuerte desarrollo (e.g. estabilidad del desarrollo, integración y modularidad morfológicas, entre otras). Se espera proporcionar una visión amplia del uso de la MG en biología evolutiva, destacando la necesidad de aumentar el esfuerzo de investigación en esta disciplina, junto con llamar la atención acerca de la utilidad de la MG como una herramienta efectiva, precisa, amigable y barata para cuantificar y estudiar la variación morfológica.

The comparison of anatomical traits between organisms has been a central topic in comparative biology. Historically, taxanomic classification and biological diversity understanding have been based on morphological descriptions. Derived from a mathematical quantitative revolution, morphological studies have experienced an important renewal due to the development of shape analysis rooted in statistical multivariate methods and novel visualisation techniques. The aim of the present review is to provide an updated perspective regarding the progress in geometric morphometrics (GMM) applied to evolutionary biology, as well as introducing to cutting-edge subjects (e.g. developmental stability, modularity, morphological integration, among other themes). Thus, it is expected to provide a broad point of view with respect to the appliaction of geometric morphometrics in evolutionary biology, highlighting its usefulness as an effective, accurate, user-friendly and inexpensive method to quantify and study shape variation.

The asymmetry and modularity of the hyoid bone / Asimetría y modularidad del hueso hioides

Morphological variation is a result of interplay among multiple intervening factors. For hyoid bones, the shape and size differences have been scarcely covered in the literature and in majority limited to studies of sexual dimorphism or age dependency. To our knowledge, the human hyoid bone, in complete opposite to other cranial bones, has not been fully utilized to address development questions in terms of asymmetry or modularity. In the present paper, we used landmark-based methods of geometric morphometrics and multivariate statistical approach to study human hyoid morphology represented by the hyoid body and greater horns in a sample of 211 fused and non-fused bones. Within a sample variation analysis, we showed that the hyoid bone is, by nature, asymmetrical bone which exhibits both directional and fluctuating types of asymmetry and is composed of well-integrated anatomical elements for which the biomechanical load of attached muscles is the most determining factor of variation. Yet, the covariance and evidence of unequal amount of fluctuating asymmetry among modules suggests a certain degree of independence during early stages of development.

La variación morfológica es el resultado de la interacción entre múltiples factores. Para huesos hioides, las diferencias de forma y tamaño han sido poco mencionadas en la literatura y se limitan a estudios del dimorfismo sexual o distribución etaria. Hasta donde sabemos, el hueso hioides humano, a diferencia de otros huesos craneales, no ha sido utilizado para hacer frente a interrogantes del desarrollo en términos de asimetría o de la modularidad. Utilizamos métodos basados en hitos de la morfometría geométrica y en el enfoque estadístico multivariado para estudiar la morfología del hueso hioides humano, representado por el cuerpo del hioides y astas mayores, en una muestra de 211 huesos fusionados y no fusionados. En un análisis de la variación de la muestra, se demostró que el hueso hioides es por naturaleza un hueso asimétrico, que exhibe tipos de asimetría tanto direccionales y fluctuantes, compuesto de elementos anatómicos bien integrados para los cuales, la carga biomecánica de músculos vinculados es el factor más determinante de la variación. Sin embargo, la covarianza y la evidencia de la cantidad desigual de asimetría fluctuante entre módulos sugiereun cierto grado de independencia durante las primeras etapas de desarrollo.

Modularidad e integración morfológica en cráneos humanos: un enfoque morfométrico geométrico / Modularity and morphological integration in human skulls: a geometric morphometric approach

Los conceptos de integración y modularidad refieren al grado de covariación entre los componentes de una estructura. Los módulos morfológicos son aquellas estructuras que poseen componentes que covarían fuertemente, pero que a su vez son relativamente independientes de otros módulos. Mientras que por integración morfológica se entiende a la variación morfológica coordinada de los componentes de un todo funcional. En el caso del cráneo se han definido tradicionalmente dos módulos en base a su origen embrionario diferencial: el esplacnocráneo y el neurocráneo. Se ha sugerido que el desarrollo cráneofacial es altamente integrado, tanto funcional como ontogénicamente. Se puso a prueba la hipótesis de modularidad del desarrollo del cráneo en base a orígenes embrionarios diferenciales, mediante la utilización del coeficiente RV. Posteriormente se evaluó el nivel de integración morfológica entre los módulos definidos anteriormente, mediante un análisis de dos bloques de mínimos cuadrados (PLS). Se intentó conocer así, si la tradicional división entre esplacno y neurocráneo posee un fundamento modular, así como el respectivo nivel de integración morfológica entre ambas estructuras.

Morphological Integration and modularity are concepts that refer to the covariation level between the components of a structure. Morphological modules are those structures that have components that strongly covary, which in turn are relatively independent to other modules. Morphological integration is instead, the coordinated morphological variation of a functional whole. Traditionally the skull has been divided in two modules based on their different developmental origins: the splanchnocranium and the neurocranium. It has been suggested that the craniofacial development is highly integrated both functional as ontogenetically. The modularity hypothesis based on different developmental origins was tested, by using the RV coefficient. Later, the integration level was assessed applying a partial least-squares analysis (PLS). The underlying aim was to know whether the traditional division between splanchno and neurocranium has a modular basis, as well as the morphological integration level between these two structures.

Amusias and modularity of musical cognitive processing

In the past few years the study of music from a neuroscientific perspective has considerably improved, allowing the evolution of both theoretical knowledge and constructs related to cognitive musical processing. Both neuroimaging studies and studies of individuals who suffer from selective deficits of musical abilities have favored the construction of useful models to understand the mechanisms of musical processing, thus revealing its complexity and eliciting the hypothesis of the modular organization of music in the brain. This article reviews studies of cognitive musical processing with a focus on deficits in musical abilities and the neuropsychological model of cognitive musical processing developed by Isabelle Peretz. This model is an important contribution to neuroscientific studies of music because it furthers the understanding of selective deficits in different components of musical processing that occur in both individuals who incur brain damage and those with congenital amusia. The model also serves as theoretical support for diagnosing different types of amusia.

La modularidad y la realidad de los procesos psicológicos / A modularidade e a realidade dos processos psicológicos / Modularity and the reality of psychological processes

Este texto ofrece un escenario para el debate sobre el estatus de la noción de proceso psicológico a partir del enfoque de modularidad, asumida en cierta medida en la psicología contemporánea, que pone de manifiesto un compromiso con alguna variedad de arquitectura cognitiva. La modularidad fuerte ha sido un enfoque moderadamente exitoso, pero también ha conducido a una comprensión fragmentada de la mente y el comportamiento, insuficiente para fundamentar la práctica profesional en diversas áreas de la psicología. La modularidad débil, como hipótesis de trabajo y alternativa, puede ser una estrategia de investigación útil, pero también requiere la integración de los hallazgos de la investigación en psicología en un marco coherente. Se discuten las implicaciones de este debate en la enseñanza de la psicología.

The objective of this paper is to set the stage for a discussion of the status of the idea of psychological process within psychological explanations and descriptions, indicating some of its consequences for the teaching of psychology. It is argued that contemporary psychology espouses some form of modularity, which, in turn, reveals commitments to a particular variety of cognitive architecture. The assumption of modularity has been a fruitful approach in some areas (e. g. the study of perception), but it has also led to a piecemeal understanding of mind and behavior that is simply insufficient to provide foundations for professional practice in several areas of psychology (e. g. education). Whereas assuming weak modularity as a working hypothesis might be a useful and necessary research strategy, integrating psychological research findings into a coherent framework is necessary. This idea has important consequences for the teaching of psychology.

Este texto oferece um cenário para o debate sobre o status da noção de processo psicológico a partir do enfoque da modularidade, assumida em certa medida na psicologia contemporânea, que manifestou um compromisso com alguma variedade da arquitetura cognitiva. A modularidade forte tem sido um enfoque moderadamente exitoso, mas também tem conduzido a uma compreensão fragmentada da mente e do comportamento, insuficiente para fundamentar a prática profissional em diversas áreas da psicologia. Amodularidade fraca, como hipótese de trabalho e alternativa, pode ser uma estratégia de investigação útil, mas também requer a integração das descobertas de investigação em psicologia num marco coerente. Discutem-se as implicações deste debate no ensino de psicologia.

Brain and the music: a window to the comprehension of the interactive brain functioning

Here we review the most important psychological aspects of music, its neural substrates, its universality and likely biological origins and, finally, how the study of neurocognition and emotions of music can provide one of the most important windows to the comprehension of the higher brain functioning and human mind. We begin with the main aspects of the theory of modularity, its behavioral and neuropsychological evidences. Then, we discuss basic psychology and neuropsychology of music and show how music and language are cognitively and neurofunctionally related. Subsequently we briefly present the evidences against the view of a high degree of specification and encapsulation of the putative language module, and how the ethnomusicological, pscychological and neurocognitive studies on music help to shed light on the issues of modularity and evolution, and appear to give further support for a cross-modal, interactive view of neurocognitive processes. Finally, we will argue that the notion of large modules do not adequately describe the organization of complex brain functions such as language, math or music, and propose a less radical view of modularity, in which the modular systems are specified not at the level of culturally determined cognitive domains but more at the level of perceptual and sensorimotor representations.

A psicopedagogia modular: uma nova perspectiva no campo da avaliação / Modular psychopedagogy: a new perspective in the evalution field

Este artigo apresenta uma reflexão sobre a avaliação da psicopedagogia modular, proposta que conflui perspectivas teóricas e metodológicas procedentes de três teorias: a Teoria Triárquica de Sternberg, Teoria das Inteligências Múltiplas de Gardner, que integram muito bem os dados disponíveis no campo da modularidade da mente, e a Teoria da Epistemologia Convergente de Visca. Esta proposta apresenta uma estrutura teórica e um modelo dinâmico de avaliação, entendido como um processo interativo, flexível e individualizado em que o profissional interpõe-se entre o sujeito e a tarefa, modificando-a (ajustando a ordem, a complexidade, o tempo...) para que o sujeito diante do obstáculo possa superá-lo e mostrar seu verdadeiro potencial.

This article presents a reflection about the modular psychopedagogy evaluation, which joins the methodological and theoretical perspectives that come from three theories: the Triarchic Theory of Sternberg, the Multiple Intelligences Theory of Gardner, that integrates the available information in the mind modularity fields, and the Convergent Epistemology Theory of Visca.This proposal presents a theoretical structure and a dynamic evaluation model, understood as an interactive process, flexible and individualized where the professional is positioned between the individual and the task, changing it (adjusting the order, the complexity, the time...) so that the individual, once against the obstacle, can get it over and show his/her real potential.

Debates sobre la modularidad en Psicología del Desarrollo: ¿Hacia un nuevo constructivismo? / Debates on modularity in Developmental Pychology: To a new constructivism?

El presente trabajo informa acerca del estado de los debates sobre la modularidad y sus implicaciones en Psicología del Desarrollo, en particular aplicada a la comprensión del desarrollo cognitivo. En primer lugar se examina el surgimiento y desarrollo de una hegemonía modularista dentro de la Psicología Cognitiva del Desarrollo, revisando hipótesis acerca de la arquitectura mental que surgen del trabajo teórico de Fodor (1983 / 1986) y de la investigación empírica que indica la existencia de estructuras y contenidos innatos en bebés. Las contribuciones del paradigma modularista llevan al reconocimiento de diferencias entre la consideración del bebé como tabla rasa, propia de las teorías piagetiana y conductista y un nuevo bebé innatista con competencias iniciales mucho más poderosas. Explicar en qué consiste el desarrollo cognitivo implica ahora un difícil equilibrio, ya que cuantas más propiedades de dominio específico se reconozcan en la mente del bebé, es decir, cuanto más modularizada esté la mente al comienzo del desarrollo, menos creativo y flexible será el sistema posterior. La hipótesis de la modularización de Karmiloff-Smith (1992 / 1994) puede servir para considerar la modularidad (redefinida) como el producto natural del proceso mismo de desarrollo. Es necesario continuar el debate para replantear un modelo constructivista, más aquí o más allá de la modularidad a lo Fodor, pero también de Piaget y del paradigma computacional, que responda al mismo tiempo a las actuales posibilidades de investigación de la Neurobiología del Desarrollo. Como consecuencia, probablemente el mismo papel de la Psicología del Desarrollo en el debate lleve a redefinir el alcance de esta disciplina, trascendiendo (aunque sin abandonar) su marco computacional de referencia.

This work communicates some discussions on modularity and its implications in Developmental Psychology, particularly applied to the understanding of cognitive development. First, we review some reasons for the emergence and expansion of a modular hegemony within the Developmental Cognitive Psychology the last two decades. We examine both assumptions about the mental architecture arising from the theoretical work of Fodor (1983 / 1986), as well as empirical research that indicates the existence of innate structures and contents in babies. While reviewing critically various modular models, we consider such hegemony and open lines of the debate. Progress of the modularity has led in different directions and disciplines within the cognitive sciences. On the one hand, much of the psychological research was conducted to search for modules, going against the general domain paradigm of long tradition. Theorizing was a dramatic turnaround beyond Fodor, assuming the hypothesis of massive modularity, which maintains the mind consists essentially (or may be completely) by innate modules for specific purposes. Modularity also appears as encouragement of investigations in the field of Neurobiology, working steadily on pathological cases such as double dissociations or atypical development (vg. Williams Syndrome). There are also positions of soft modularity, like the assumption of modularization of Karmiloff-Smith -which seems to have marked a turning point in the dynamics of theorizing and experimentation on the subject in question. Contributions from the paradigm of modularity led to estimate the differences between baby's consideration as a blank slate without any previous knowledge- the Piagetian and behaviorist babies, and a new nativist baby, initially much more powerful. For the standard constructivism, mind development occurs by general changes that affect the general structures of representation for all domains, and that operate on all aspects of cognitive system similarly, from a few processes biologically determined and functional processes as invariant. For the nativist / modular thesis, the baby is much better equipped from this starting, and is programmed to understand specific sources of information; their further development will be restricted by the specific innately modules established for each domain. To explain cognitive development would involve a difficult balance: while there are more specific domain properties in the baby's mind, less creative and flexible will be their cognitive system. Neuroscience of development and recent experiments with babies, provide elements to try reconciliation between their explanation of the constructivist legacy and the new findings about the innate background of the babies. The evolutionary specialization of human beings would be characterized precisely by a relative lack of expertise at birth, and a very lengthy development during which our brains learn and configure out. So, it would be possible to stay (or return) to constructivist positions, without abandoning the notion that there is something innate -although not necessarily coincident with the Fodor's view. This approach is borrowing heavily from the idea of modularization of Karmiloff-Smith (1992 / 1994). She proposed that the domain expertise and modularity (re-defined) may well be understood as the natural product of the process of development. According to this author, modularization is the result of a process of representational redescription, a phased-development mechanism, able to give an account of the genesis of flexibility and variety of human cognition. Perhaps the challenge will be continuing with the debate in order to figure out the core features of a renewed constructivism, within or beyond the Fodorian modularity, but also of Piaget and computational paradigm, that considers modularistic contributions, and it is compatible with psychological and neurobiological theories. As a result, probably the same role of Developmental Psychology in this debate will lead to redefine the scope of this discipline, transcending (but not abandon) its computational framework.

La ordenación piramidal del cerebro y el enjambre de la conciencia. Segunda parte

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

Abstract: The present paper offers a particular emergence, dual aspect, and dynamic system theory of the neural correlate of consciousness. The theory is grounded on two successive hypotheses supported with empirical evidences and concepts from the neurosciences, approximations to the sciences of complexity, and philosophical arguments. The first hypothesis is that consciousness emerges along with the highest level of brain function, i.e., at the intermodular domain of the whole organ. This hypothesis is upheld by two necessary requisites; the first is the generalized impression in neuroscience of the brain as an information-handling device, and that this property enables every mental activity, including consciousness, to take place. This concept is verified on several empirical grounds. If we take the synapse as a binary code of information, the computation capacity of the brain is in the order of 100 million Megabits. Even such enormous figure is limited and misleading because the synapse manifests not only two, but three possible informational states (excitation, rest, and inhibition), because there are subliminal potentials, and also a compact intracellular information machinery. Moreover, the informational requirement of consciousness is accurately delivered by Kuffler and Nichols' five ruling principles of brain function: (1) The brain uses electrical signals to process information; (2) Such electrical signals are identical in all neurons; (3) The signals constitute codes of codification and representation; (4) The origin and destiny of the fibers determines the content of information; (5) The meaning of the signals lies in the interactions. Even though the reference to representation, content, and meaning implies higher cognitive properties, it seems necessary to add a sixth principle for a more judicious neural implication in regard to consciousness. This principle is that information is processed in the brain in six levels of complexity, undergoing a gradual gain in density, integration, congruity, and capacity in each consecutive stratum. The six levels are the following: (1) Organismic, the integration of the nervous system with the rest of the organism systems; (2) Organic, the integration of the different modules in the whole brain; (3) Modular, the set of brain modules and their interconnections; (4) Intercellular, the designs and functional bindings among neuron cells; (5) Cellular, the set of brain cells, particularly neurons; (6) Molecular, the chemical components that mediate the transmission of information. In this fashion, the second requisite to uphold the emergence of consciousness lies in establishing that the different levels of brain organization constitute a pyramidal arrangement. Certainly, the number of elements is greater in the lower levels, while the integration of information is progressively enhanced in the upper levels. Moreover, this neuropsychological pyramid insinuates both an ascending cascade whereby the lower orders stipulate and influence the upper ones, and a progressive and convergent functional enrichment ultimately resulting in the qualia, feeling, and awareness attributes of consciousness. Information flows horizontally in each level, but it also overflows vertically in both directions. This pyramidal scheme is applied to clarify two parti cular aspects of brain function that are closely linked to consciousness: the electrical activity and the engram of memory. Such inquiry makes clear that a qualitative jump manifested by the emergence of various and dissimilar novelties occur at each layer of brain operation based upon a mass coordination. It seems feasible to envision the engram, and conceivably every other mental representation, as a plastic pattern involving all levels and aspects of brain operation, including the pinnacle where consciousness consolidates as the subjective aspect of the uppermost brain function. As a result of the proposed stratified and pyramidal scheme of brain functions, the first hypotheses is strengthened and specified. Thus, presumably consciousness and the neural capacities correlated to it constitute two associated aspects emerging from such particular functional hierarchy at the organic level of the brain by the efficient connection of its modules. It would not be required that all the modules of the brain become interrelated during a conscious processing, but that they would be functionally available while some of them become progressively active by intermodular articulation thereby making possible the arising and unfolding of conscious mental operation streams. In order to reinforce this notion the visual system is invoked since the scene that is consciously perceived emerges from the coordination of some 40 modules that separately appear to operate unconsciously. At the moment that such high-hierarchy and complex function presumably appears, it would achieve a conscious correlate and become altogether able to exert a descending causality and supervene the operation of the lower orders, which, among other capacities, would permit voluntary action to take place. In order to specify the first hypothesis asserting that consciousness emerges at the organic level of the brain along with the proficient inter-modular connectivity, a second hypothesis is formulated and justified in neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and complexity science terms. The supposition is that the specific neural correlate of consciousness may be a function similar to a bird flock or an insect swarm orderly binding the operations of different modules in a cinematic, hipercomplex, coherent, and synchronic stream. The human brain contains some 400 cortical and subcortical modules functioning as partially specialized stations that potentially interchange particularly codified information through some 2500 fibers or intermodular pathways. The hypothesis requires that information complexity undergoes a further and substantial gain of attributions through the concise and prolific connectivity of the different modules. In this regard, it is supposed that a stream of coherent activation is constituted in the conscious brain by the intermodular dynamics and that such dynamics may acquire global patterned properties in a simi lar way as bird flocks and so-called intelligent swarms achieve unanimously shifting dynamics. This particular idea is supported with complexity science models of the remarkable performances of large groups of birds and insects and with the known behavior of massive populations of neurons. In so far as this would be a complex function operating at the limits of equilibrium resulting from local dynamics of the brain subsystems, the self-organization of high level brain functions justifies the notion that a dynamic coupling among modules can and may result in complex cognitive properties and consciousness. Intermodular brain dynamics is conceived here as an emergent, unbound, synchronic, hypercomplex, highly coherent, and tetradimensional process capable to navigate, steer, swirl, split, and flow throughout the brain and thereby connect very diverse systems in a fast and efficient manner. In the same way, its putative subjective correlate, the conscious process, can be conceived as an emergent, voluntary, unified, qualitative, and narrative process capable to access, coordinate, and integrate multiple local information mechanisms. The hypothesis poses that the conscious transformation of information is correlated, moment to moment and point to point, with the intermodular processing that evolves in the manner of a bird flock or swarm dynamics. It is finally posed that brain intermodular dynamics correlated to consciousness consolidates by the convergence of an ascending bottom-up organization of the different ranks of brain operation, and by the descending top-down influx of the social, cultural, and environmental information where the individual is immersed.

La ordenación piramidal del cerebro y el enjambre de la conciencia. Primera parte

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Abstract: The present paper offers a particular emergence, dual aspect, and dynamic system theory of the neural correlate of consciousness. The theory is grounded on two successive hypotheses supported by empirical evidences and concepts from the neurosciences, approximations to the sciences of complexity, and philosophical arguments. The first hypothesis is that consciousness emerges along with the highest level of brain function, i.e., at the intermodular domain of the whole organ. This hypothesis is upheld by two necessary requisites. The first is the generalized impression in neurosciences of the brain as an information-handling device, and that this property enables every mental activity, including consciousness. This concept is verified on several empirical grounds. If we take the synapse as a binary code of information, the computation capacity of the brain is in the order of the 100 million megabits. Even such an enormous figure is limited and misleading because the synapse manifests not only two, but three possible informational states (excitation, rest, and inhibition), because there are subliminal potentials, and also a compact intracellular information machinery. Moreover, the informational requirement of consciousness is accurately delivered by Kuffler and Nichols' five ruling principles of brain function: 1. The brain uses electrical signals to process information; 2. such electrical signals are identical in all neurons; 3. the signals constitute codes of codification and representation; 4. the origin and destiny of the fibers determines the content of information; 5. the meaning of the signals lies in the interactions. Even though the reference to representation, content, and meaning implies higher cognitive properties, it seems necessary to add a sixth principle for a more judicious neural implication in regard to consciousness. This principle is that information is processed in the brain in six levels of complexity, undergoing a gradual gain in density, integration, congruity, and capacity in each consecutive stratum. The six levels are the following: 1. organismic, the integration of the nervous system with the rest of the organism systems; 2. organic, the integration of the different modules in the whole brain; 3. modu lar, the set of brain modules and their interconnections; 4. intercellular, the designs and functional bindings among neuron cells; 5. cellular, the set of brain cells, particularly neurons; 6. molecular, the chemical components that mediate the transmission of information. In this fashion, the second requisite to uphold the emergence of consciousness lies in establishing that the different levels of brain organization constitute a pyramidal arrangement. Certainly, the number of elements is greater in the lower levels, while the integration of information is progressively enhanced in the upper levels. Moreover, this neuropychological pyramid insinuates both an ascending cascade whereby the lower orders stipulate and influence the upper ones, and a progressive and convergent functional enrichment ultimately resulting in the qualia, feeling, and awareness attributes of consciousness. Information flows horizontally in each level, but it also overflows vertically in both directions. This pyramidal scheme is applied to clarify two parti cular aspects of brain function that are closely linked to consciousness: the electrical activity and the engram of memory. Such inquiry makes clear that a qualitative jump manifested by the emergence of various and dissimilar novelties occur at each layer of brain operation based upon a mass coordination. It seems feasible to envision the engram, and conceivably every other mental representation, as a plastic pattern involving all levels and aspects of brain operation, including the pinnacle where consciousness consolidates as the subjective aspect of the uppermost brain function. As a result of the proposed stratified and pyramidal scheme of brain functions, the first hypotheses is strengthened and specified. Thus, presumably consciousness and the neural capacities correlated to it constitute two associated aspects emerging from such particular functional hierarchy at the organic level of the brain by the efficient connection of its modules. It would not be required that all the modules of the brain became interrelated during a conscious processing, but that they would be functionally available instead, while some of them become progressively active by intermodular articulation, thereby making possible the arising and unfolding of conscious mental operation streams. In order to reinforce this notion, the visual system is invoked since the consciously perceived scene emerges from the coordination of some 40 modules that separately appear to operate unconsciously. At the moment that such high-hierarchy and complex function presumably appears, it would achieve a conscious correlate and become altogether able to exert a descending causality and supervene the operation of the lower orders, which, among other capacities, would permit voluntary action to take place. In order to specify the first hypothesis, asserting that consciousness emerges at the organic level of the brain along with the proficient intermodular connectivity, a second hypothesis is formulated and justified in neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and complex scientific terms. The supposition is that the specific neural correlate of consciousness may be a function similar to a bird flock or an insect swarm orderly binding the operations of different modules in a cinematic, hipercomplex, coherent, and synchronic stream. The human brain contains some 400 cortical and subcortical modules functioning as partially specialized stations that potentially interchange particularly codified information through some 2500 fibers or intermodular pathways. The hypothesis requires information complexity undergoing a further and substantial gain of attributions through the concise and prolific connectivity of the different modules. In this regard, it is supposed that a stream of coherent activation is constituted in the conscious brain by the intermodular dynamics and that such dynamics may acquire global patterned properties in a simi lar way as bird flocks and so-called intelligent swarms achieve unanimously shifting dynamics. This particular idea is supported with complex scientific models of the remarkable performances of large groups of birds and insects and with the known behavior of massive populations of neurons. In so far as this would be a complex function operating at the limits of equilibrium resulting from local dynamics of the brain subsystems, the self-organization of high level brain functions justifies the notion that a dynamic coupling among modules may result in complex cognitive properties and consciousness. Intermodular brain dynamics is conceived here as an emergent, unbound, synchronic, hypercomplex, highly coherent, and tetradimensional process capable to navigate, steer, swirl, split, and flow throughout the brain and thereby connect very diverse systems in a fast and efficient manner. In the same way, its putative subjective correlate -the conscious process- may be conceived as an emergent, voluntary, unified, qualitative, and narrative process capable to access, coordinate, and integrate multiple local information mechanisms. The hypothesis poses that the conscious transformation of information is correlated, moment to moment and point to point, with the intermodular processing that evolves in the manner of a bird flock or swarm dynamics. It is finally posed that brain intermodular dynamics correlated to consciousness consolidates by the convergence of an ascending bottom-up organization of the different ranks of brain operation, and by the descending top-down influx of the social, cultural, and environmental information where the individual is immersed.